Estimates of the total emperor penguin population range widely. In the 1980s and early 1990s, population estimates ranged from around 400,000 to 500,000 breeding pairs. More recently, researchers have suggested a higher population estimate, ranging from about 600,000 to 800,000 breeding pairs, which equates to around 1.2 million to 1.6 million individual emperor penguins.
It's important to note that these population estimates are based on scientific surveys, modeling, and satellite imagery analysis, but obtaining precise numbers for these remote Antarctic populations remains difficult. The distribution of emperor penguin colonies and their breeding patterns, which often occur on sea ice, make comprehensive censuses challenging.